Why does gender affect delinquency

Running away and responses to witnessing or suffering from domestic violence also tend to lead to system involvement and locked detention. The Delaware Girls Initiative addresses the fact that the juvenile justice system was originally designed to deal with the problems of boys and young men and in doing so neglected the gender-specific programming and treatment needs of girls and young women.

These differences require separate research and planning to meet the needs of girls enmeshed in a system designed to manage and serve a predominately male population. A continuum of gender-responsive programs and practices are necessary to ensure that girls receive the attention and treatment they need. The continuum, however, must be developed through federal, state, and local laws and policies that divert girls from the courts in the first instance, and limit their system involvement to the greatest extent possible.

Prior to her appointment to Family Court, Chief Judge Kuhn completed a judicial clerkship with the Delaware Supreme Court and practiced in the areas of corporate and commercial litigation and family law from to She is active in the areas of juvenile justice, domestic violence prevention and the prevention of child abuse.

She has implemented many successful programs within the Family Court during her tenure as Chief Judge. Skip to main content. Principles for Responding to Status Offenses Section 2.

For violent offenses it turned out that violence was predicted by any kind of abuse history in males, whereas only physical abuse histories significantly predicted violent behavior in females. The finding that female juvenile delinquents were more often victim of sexual and physical abuse and more often had a history of neglect and maltreatment than male juvenile offenders has been explained by Wellman Wellman argued that females have been socialized to be more compliant and responsive to the needs of others, which may result in higher levels of abuse victimization.

Alternatively, Sundaram et al. This might explain why previous research found that boys, rather than girls, were more often targets of neglect and physical abuse Sickmund et al.

One should bear in mind, however, that the present study examined a sample of juvenile delinquents. The comparison with a community sample may, therefore, not be useful. Additionally, male juvenile offenders more often committed sexual offenses and felony offenses against persons. This is in line with previous research showing higher numbers of sexual offenses by male juveniles Finkelhor et al. This may mean that females express themselves differently; they may have a different coping strategy than males.

For example, Adams et al. Apart from the higher levels of trauma exposure in the delinquent sample, he reported an increased likelihood of a major depressive episode in girls in the delinquent group, suggesting females may deal with the consequences of abuse and neglect by internalizing, whereas boys are more likely to externalize.

The finding that female juvenile offenders more often committed misdemeanor offenses against persons and more often had reports of violence that were not included in criminal history can be explained by the fact that female perpetrators are more often referred to treatment than to correctional facilities Lodewijks et al.

These findings may indicate that females do, in fact, commit violence, but are less often sentenced in penal law. Another possible explanation for gender differences in the association between abuse victimization and delinquent behavior is that the long-term consequences may depend on the type of abuse or neglect experienced.

As females are more likely to be sexual abuse victims than males Zahn-Waxler , this may explain gender differences in associations between abuse type and delinquent behavior. Victims of neglect and physical abuse are believed to have the largest risk to show delinquent behavior, whereas this risk is not present in sexual abuse victims Stewart et al. Additionally, in line with, this Trickett and McBride-Chang suggested victims of physical abuse were more likely to show externalizing problems.

Victims of sexual abuse were more likely to show internalizing behavior problems. Another explanation for gender differences in the association between abuse victimization and delinquent behavior can be found in the individual differences in coping ability. Individual differences do affect the way a person copes with maltreatment. Among detained juveniles substantial percentages of boys and girls experience posttraumatic symptoms, with a higher percentage of girls suffering from post-traumatic stress symptoms Kerig and Becker Becker and Kerig further showed that the severity of post-traumatic stress symptoms, in turn, predicts the degree of delinquency.

So, the differences in trauma may also explain gender differences in the strength of the association between maltreatment victimization and delinquent behavior. These findings suggest that in a group of juvenile offenders, there are indications for a cycle of violence. This further supports the assumption that children who experienced physical abuse are at increased risk for developing violent behavior Widom b.

It should be noted, however, that the cycle of violence may oversimplify what actually happens with abuse victims. The cycle of violence states that maltreated children have an increased likelihood to exert violence themselves. However, only being an abuse victim will never be the only explanation of the development of delinquent behavior.

The majority of survivors do not go on to be violent, especially not sexual abuse victims Collishaw et al. Previous research has demonstrated that delinquent behavior is multi-determined, indicating that dysfunctional development is never caused by just one adverse situation or risk factor, but that it is always an interaction of various risk factors in the child itself, and in the broader social context of the child which causes the development of violent delinquent behavior see for example Loeber et al.

In fact, the finding that male and female abuse victims react differently to abuse victimization indicates that one can never conclude that all maltreatment will result in violence. However, the present study did show that both in males and females, history of abuse victimization increases the likelihood to commit violent offenses.

Potential gender differences need further study. The present study further specifies the association between maltreatment and violence by indicating that sexual offenders more often have a history of sexual abuse, whereas violent offenders have a history of abuse in general. These findings confirm social learning theories, assuming that victims copy behavior they have learned Bandura Other studies also reported that experiencing a particular type of maltreatment is most likely to result in the same type of offending behavior Hamilton et al.

Dutton and Hart also found an association between physical abuse and violent offending and an association between sexual abuse and sexual violence. However, remarkably, Zingeraff et al. It seems that, in a group of juvenile offenders, the cycle of violence is more present in males than in females.

In other words, and in line with the work of Fagan , the association between childhood abuse and offending behavior appears to be stronger in males than in females.

When examining the association between abuse history and violence, in males, sexual abuse history was predictive, which was not the case in females showing violence. If committing crimes is considered to be a coping mechanism, this suggests a different coping mechanism in males and females.

In this context, Ford et al. Females who have been abuse victims thus need attention in preventive and curative interventions. Ford et al. For abused males, the link between abuse victimization and delinquent behavior should further be examined in order to develop adequate preventive and curative interventions, likely incorporating treatment of the traumas present Kerig and Becker The present study is, to our knowledge, the first examining gender differences in the association between different kinds of offending behavior and histories of maltreatment.

Generally, few gender differences in the association between abuse victimization and offending behavior have been found. The present study thus indicates that in both male and female juvenile offenders maltreatment history is associated with offending behavior, suggesting that in facilities for juvenile delinquents, attention should be given to possible abuse histories of offenders.

Various theories explain the link between maltreatment victimization and offending e. These theories may be the starting point for preventive or curative interventions, especially for males who have been sexually abused and deserve attention because they are likely to pose the greatest risk, as they tend to commit both sexual and violent offenses. First, it is important to be aware that the information on maltreatment used in the present study is retrospective in nature; specifically, when juveniles were accused of delinquent behavior, their maltreatment history was identified.

This may have affected the results, because their recent justice contact may have affected their perception of their childhood experiences. Additionally, it should be noted that maltreatment scores were based on suspected maltreatment, whether or not substantiated.

This may have resulted in higher rates of abuse than the actual numbers. Second, it is important to realize that maltreatment in the present study was examined in a group that was referred to court for offenses. This may have resulted in an increase in the strength of the relation between maltreatment and delinquent behavior Zingeraff et al. Findings cannot, therefore, be generalized to community samples. The association between maltreatment and offending may not be present or may be less present in a community sample, because it is likely that only a very small part of all abuse victims become violent e.

Future research may replicate this study in a community sample, to find out whether there are differences between a community and juvenile justice sample in the strength of the association between maltreatment history and delinquent behavior. Additionally, other important factors that may have affected abuse resiliency, such as developmental trauma Leibowitz et al.

Kerig and Becker suggested various theoretical models explaining the association between abuse history and the development of delinquent behavior. More comprehensive models may be needed to further explain the findings of the present study. Future research, including these constructs, will be needed to obtain more complete knowledge on gender differences in the association between abuse victimization and offending.

Notwithstanding these limitations, there are some important conclusions that can be drawn from this study. First, the present study supported previous findings that female juvenile delinquents are victim of sexual and physical abuse more often than male juvenile offenders. Society should take action to identify these victims earlier and to protect them against maltreatment.

In terms of prevention of delinquent behavior, it is important to be aware that male juvenile offenders commit more often sexual offenses and felony offenses against persons, whereas female juvenile offenders more often commit misdemeanor offenses against persons and more often have reports of violence that are not included in criminal history.

Youth care providers should be aware that females may be less likely to have a formal criminal record, but may still have committed violence. Given the association between maltreatment and delinquent behavior for both boys and girls, interventions could pay attention to potential effects of maltreatment and to the assessment of abuse and neglect histories in juvenile delinquents. The finding that sexual abuse is mainly related to sexual offending and history of physical abuse is mainly related to violent offending provides targets for prevention initiatives.

Future research should focus on dynamic risk factors that are related to sexual and violent offending. Moreover, future research should examine the consequences of abuse victimization also in non-offender groups, in order to gain a more complete picture of the consequences of maltreatment. Generally, the relations between victimization and offending are stronger in male juvenile offenders than in female juvenile offenders, especially the relation between sexual abuse and sexual offending.

The consequences of abuse victimization are different for juvenile males then females, in particular with respect to delinquent behavior. Interventions targeting the prevention of criminal offense recidivism should, therefore, pay particular attention to the negative consequences of abuse victimization in male juveniles. Section of the manual used to assess abuse histories of juvenile offenders: Washington State Institute for Public Policy , page: 98 :.

Check with child protective services, community mental health, and other sources for information. Has anyone ever touched you in a way that made you feel uncomfortable? Who was it? How often? Last time? Did you ever feel someone was trying to take advantage of you sexually? Insisting on sexual activity? National Center for Biotechnology Information , U.

Journal of Family Violence. J Fam Violence. Published online Jan Jessica J. Asscher , Claudia E. Van der Put , and Geert Jan J. Claudia E. Van der Put. Geert Jan J. Author information Copyright and License information Disclaimer. AvU rehcssA. Corresponding author. Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License which permits any use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author s and the source are credited.

This article has been cited by other articles in PMC. Abstract The present study examines gender differences in the association between abuse and neglect during childhood, and sexual and violent offending in juvenile delinquents. Keywords: Abuse and neglect victimization, Adolescent offending, Transmission of antisocial behavior, Gender differences.

Criminal History, Reports of Violence not included in Criminal History In order to assess criminal history, age of first offense, sexual misconduct misdemeanour referrals and felony sex offense referrals were coded. Analyses To answer the first research question, whether there are gender differences in type of abuse experienced, percentages of type of offense, and percentages of different types of experienced maltreatment were compared for males and females by means of a series of chi-square tests.

Results In order to answer the first research question, whether there are gender differences in type of abuse experienced, the percentages of sexual abuse, physical abuse and neglect were compared between girls and boys.

Table 1 Prevalence of sexual and physical abuse and neglect separately for female and male juvenile offenders. Open in a separate window. Table 2 Prevalence of sexual and violent offending behavior separately for female and male juvenile offenders.

Table 3 Correlation between different forms of maltreatment and offending behavior separately for female and male juvenile offenders. Discussion The present study aimed to examine gender differences in the associations between abuse and neglect and sexual and violent offending in juvenile delinquents. Limitations First, it is important to be aware that the information on maltreatment used in the present study is retrospective in nature; specifically, when juveniles were accused of delinquent behavior, their maltreatment history was identified.

Take for example that boys develop the traits involving more methodical and strategic ability with the onset of increasing self confidence and materialistic views of the world. On the other hand females traditionally have more verbal acuity and more self awareness as well as lowering self esteem as the years go on and thereby becoming more conscientious of how they look, talk and act making them very anxious around others Siegel, et al.

Boys traditionally play the role of the masculine figure being assertive or aggressive in behavior and being taught that physical play, peer orientation and leadership is essential in filling the roles set out by American culture. Young girls are taught that being feminine and expressing traits such as sympathy and kindness are key. Furthermore, they are taught that they should seek approval for their behavior by others and that playing the role of caretaker, internalizing feelings and not expressing those feelings for fear of being scrutinized by everyone when it comes to how to act which is a constant reminder of how they should act in the exact opposite ways of young boys.

Biologically speaking, the biggest differences in how males and females act ,think and respond to the environment has to do with hormones. Males are driven off of testosterone which fuels aggression, muscle formation and reactions such as anger and physicality, while estrogen serves females by creating the less muscular body characteristics, creating softer and gentler reactions to the environment with that of reason, forethought and passiveness.

Either way, the vast differences in brain development, aggression, violence and general personality and attitude come from the varying levels of hormones in each gender which can account for different delinquency patterns and causes. When the socialization, cultural, biological and psychological factors form a perfect storm of risk factors for young people to enter into deviant behavior, the interjection of poor peer selection, lack of family involvement, low socio-economic conditions, poor environmental factors, and poor authority figures in their lives propels these once innocent conditions into a road to crime.

The end resulsts can be the fact that boys tend to be involved in more aggressive and strategic oriented crimes tends to follow the patterns of socialization, biology and psychology. This is where you will see more violent, aggressive and external crimes of battery, gang involvement, robbery and burglary.

The end result for girls comes with the conclusion that they are more prone to be involved in more passive and self afflicting crimes such as status offenses, drug use and prostitution also lends credence to the biological, social and psychological basis for gender differences in society.